Since colonial times, bilingual education has been alternately embraced and rejected in the United States. In times when the economy was booming, immigrants were welcomed, and their languages were not forbidden. In times of recession, war, or national threat, immigrants, cultures, and languages were restricted or forbidden. In many parts of the world, people are not considered well-educated unless they are schooled in multiple languages. Bilingual Education Bilingual education helps students whose home language is not English to succeed in school. The challenge is to cherish and preserve the rich cultural and linguistic heritage of the students as they acquire English. One means of preserving and supplementing the home languages of our nation’s children is through bilingual instruction. European immigrants felt strong pressure to assimilate, and bilingual instruction was virtually eradicated throughout the US. In 1960s, bilingual education was reborn in Florida due to Cuban immigrants fleeing the 1959 revolution. The1st bilingual program was at Coral Way Elementary. Its goal was fluency and literacy in both English and Spanish. Bilingual Education Act of 1968 The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was the first federal law relating to bilingual education. It authorized $7.5 million to finance 76 projects serving 27,000 students, and the purpose of funds were to support education programs, train teachers and aides, develop and distribute instructional materials, and encourage parental involvement. It is explicitly compensatory. Children who were unable to speak English were considered to be educationally disadvantaged. Bilingual education was to provide resources to compensate for the “handicap” of not speaking English. Federal aid to bilingual education was seen as a “remedial” program rather than an innovative approach to language instruction. Since the initial legislation in 1968, there have been six reauthorizations of the Bilingual Education Act (‘74, ’78, ’84, ’88, ’94, and ’01). The 2001 reauthorization was contained within the No Child Left Behind Act. English-Only Movement In the 1980s, a movement arose to seek the establishment of English as the official language of the United States. The goals of English-only movement were: adoption of a constitutional amendment to make English the official language, repeal laws mandating multi-lingual ballots and voting materials, restriction on bilingual funding, universal enforcement of the English language and civics requirement for naturalization Federal Law and Judicial Decisions There were many federal laws and judicial decisions related to bilingual education. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (1964) set a minimum standard for the education of any student by prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in the operation of a federally assisted program. It has been interpreted to prohibit the denial of equal access to education because of an English learner’s limited proficiency in English. Lau v. Nichols (1974) made illegal those educational practices that excluded children from effective education on the basis of language. Title VII (Bilingual Education Act, 1974) defined bilingual education as “instruction given in, and study of, English, and to the extent necessary to allow a child to progress effectively through the educational system, the native language.” Castaneda v. Pickard (1981) outlined three criteria for EL programs: it must be based on sound educational theory, implemented effectively, evaluated as effective. Plyler v. Doe (1982) cannot deny school enrollment to children of illegal immigrants. Title III of the most recent reauthorization of ESEA, the NCLB Act of 2001 heavily emphasizes English-language proficiency not only for students, but also for teachers, who must be certified in written and oral English. In 1998, California passed Prop 227 which was a measure rejecting bilingual education. Educational Issues There are many educational issues involving bilingual education. Ethnic minorities score lower on achievement tests compared to Whites, for example, ethnic minorities score 48-97 points lower than Whites on verbal subtests. Dropout rates are shockingly high. Only 52% of the students in America’s 50 largest cities complete HS with a diploma, and in four districts: Baltimore, Cleveland, Detroit, Indianapolis, they had less than 32%. Limited English proficient students drop out at a rate 5 times as high (51%) as their English-speaking peers, their primary reason for dropping out is lack of knowledge in the English language. Placements Educators have responded to these educational issues by developing special programs and procedures and by placing students in special classes: Special education referrals and placements where referral for EL students were disproportionately high, Retention/Promotion policies where students fall behind almost immediately on entering school, Tracking which is a major contributor to continuing gaps in achievement, Segregation which has disastrous effects on minority students, Compensatory education which has been identified with remediation of linguistic deficiencies, Submersion in English where the parents of these students have been less involved in helping with homework, and Inclusion of EL students in mainstream classrooms which is currently the trend. Bilingual Education Program Models Bilingual education has different kinds of program models. One is submersion where no provisions are made for the language and academic needs of EL students and denies students their rights under the law. A second model is teaching of English Language Development (ELD) which is further divided into Pull-out ELD where students leave their classroom for instruction with ELD teacher, ELD class period which is a separate ELD class, Content Based ELD where it is a separate ELD class, but content is based on grade-level academic objectives and Sheltered Instruction (SDAIE) where lessons have content, language, and learning strategy objectives. A third model is Transitional or Early Exit Bilingual Education where the goal: to mainstream students into English-only classrooms. In Maintenance or Developmental Bilingual Education, students are encouraged to be proficient in English and their native language. In Immersion Bilingual Education, the program provides academic and language instruction in 2 languages, ideally from K through 12. In Newcomer Centers, the program helps students acquire enough English to move into regular language support programs. Instructional Strategies for Bilingual Education Not only are there are different program models for bilingual education, but there also different instructional strategies. In Language Management, educators can separate the two languages by time, personnel, subject, and manner of delivery. In Primary-Language Use strategy, the primary language is used as the language of instruction in teaching students academic material. In Code Switching, students have the choice to use which language they’re most comfortable with, and in Classroom Organization students are engaged in a nurturing environment that honors and respects their language and culture. How does this pertain to us as School Psychologists? EL students have been disproportionately referred and placed in Special Education due to low level of acculturation, inadequate assessment, language problems, poor school progress, academic/cognitive difficulties, and special learning problems. It is our job to adequately assess the student to make sure the difficulties are do to an academic/cognitive issue and not just a language barrier by using unbiased assessments, for example, using assessments that require little knowledge of English language Discussion Do you agree that English should be the official language of the United States? With so many languages in the US, do you think bilingual education is possible?
Abstract The United States has often used the metaphor of a “melting pot” to describe its diverse population. However, those groups who have resisted assimilation pressures have come up with a more modern metaphor of a “salad bowl”, implying a mix in which the individual ingredients retain their flavor and texture. However, groups that are least similar to the original European-American immigrants have suffered discrimination, exploitation, and genocide. Economic cycles in the United States have affected immigration policies, liberalizing the policies when workers were needed and restricting immigration when jobs were scarce. Causes for immigration include economic, political, and religious factors, as well as family unification. Immigrants have brought with them cultural, political, religious, and economic values, along with multiple tongues and various skills. Immigrants contribute material aspects of their culture (such as crafts, foods, and technology), as well as nonmaterial aspects (such as family values, spiritual beliefs, and medical practices). Much of the history of the United States consists of the migration of groups from one part of the country to another, due to crowding or the promise of greater economic freedom. The most mobile population between 1995 and 2000 was Hispanics and the least mobile population between 1995 and 2000 was non-Hispanic Whites. Minorities’ labor, art, and votes have long been used and abused without adequate compensation. For example, Native Americans brought food to the starving colonists and, in return, had their land taken away. This exploitation continues to this day with the inadequately paid, undereducated underclass of the United States, living without health benefits or adequate housing, whether white, brown, or black. Poverty is associated with a number of difficulties, such as underemployment, homelessness, educational deprivation, single parent homes, and other types of instability. However, some minorities continue in poverty due to racism and discrimination. Issues related to poverty include insufficient income, jobs with limited opportunity, lack of health insurance, inadequate education, and poor nutrition. Minority students typically live in racially isolated neighborhoods and are more likely to attend segregated schools. A student who is Black, Latino, or Native American remains much less likely to succeed in school, and a major factor is a disparity of resources in inner-city schools. The educational system of the United States has been fundamentally weak in serving the fastest growing school-age population. School psychologists need to be aware of how multiple factors and student diversity influence the provision of crisis intervention services. They need to be able to connect with, respond to, and interact effectively with their pupils. As the immigrant population in the United States increases, so does the need for schools to support immigrant students and their families. By providing support to immigrant families and students in need, schools ensure that immigrant students not only develop a sense of belonging but also learn in an environment that fosters success and achievement.
9- Lana
Chapter 9: Intercultural Educators
Culture is defined in many ways. Diaz-Rico and Weed summarized culture as “the explicit and implicit patterns for living, the dynamic system of commonly agreed-upon symbols and meanings, knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, behaviors, traditions, and/or habits that are shared and make up the total way of life of a people, as negotiated by individuals in the process of constructing a personal identity.” Culture involves observable behaviors as well intangibles such as beliefs, values, rhythms, rules, and roles. Cultures cannot be taught merely by examining external features such as art and artifacts. Instead, to truly understand the culture the teacher must examine the living patterns and values of the culture that an art piece or artifact represents.
People’s attitudes toward schooling are influence by their culture. Examples of some of the attitudes include the individual’s desired occupation or career, the importance that parents place on education, and the value placed on an investment of an education. Culture also governs the way people learn and it may also influences their learning styles. The students’ culture is the foundation for their learning. When the home culture and the school culture come into contact, they affect each other. Several things can happen; the dominant culture takes over and causes the individuals to assimilate into this new culture, the individuals adapt or acculturate effectively to the mainstream culture, both cultures adapt or accommodate to each other, or both cultures coexist in a pluralism or biculturalism environment. Students go through a process of euphoria, culture shock, and adaptation when they experience a second culture. This process can take several years and long term adjustment can take several forms. It is important for intercultural teachers to understand the relationship between the students’ home culture and school culture and stages of adjustment for these students. By doing so they are able to accept and promote cultural content in the classroom as a vital component of the instructional process and are able to help the students to achieve within the cultural context of the school.
Schools have unique opportunities to prevent and control interethnic conflicts through their policies, curricula, and antiracism programs. Schools that promote an atmosphere of multiculturalism convey the message that all cultures are of value. They do this by displaying explicit welcome signs in many languages, attempting to involve parents by a deliberate curriculum of inclusion, by using affirmative action to promote hiring of a diverse faculty, and by developing programs that promote interactions between students of diverse backgrounds. When interethnic conflicts arise, culturally receptive schools take immediate proactive steps to resolve the conflicts. One such program that is effective in managing conflict for elementary students uses negotiation and mediation procedures that focus on safely expressing feelings, taking the perspective of the other, and providing the rationale for diverse points of view (Johnson and Johnson 1979, 1994, 1995). Another example of a conflict resolution model developed by the Conflict Resolution Network is the Twelve Skill Approach to Interethnic Conflict, which promotes a win-win approach using negotiation and mediation to resolve interethnic conflicts.
School psychologists need to be aware of the challenges faced by individuals from non-dominant cultures as they strive to succeed in school. They need to be aware of how class and racial privileges create a barrier for success for individuals from non-dominant culture. By engaging in a self-reflection process and outreach to their community, they become more knowledgeable about another culture and are more equipped to participate in school reforms.
History of Bilingual Education
Since colonial times, bilingual education has been alternately embraced and rejected in the United States. In times when the economy was booming, immigrants were welcomed, and their languages were not forbidden. In times of recession, war, or national threat, immigrants, cultures, and languages were restricted or forbidden. In many parts of the world, people are not considered well-educated unless they are schooled in multiple languages.
Bilingual Education
Bilingual education helps students whose home language is not English to succeed in school. The challenge is to cherish and preserve the rich cultural and linguistic heritage of the students as they acquire English. One means of preserving and supplementing the home languages of our nation’s children is through bilingual instruction. European immigrants felt strong pressure to assimilate, and bilingual instruction was virtually eradicated throughout the US. In 1960s, bilingual education was reborn in Florida due to Cuban immigrants fleeing the 1959 revolution. The1st bilingual program was at Coral Way Elementary. Its goal was fluency and literacy in both English and Spanish.
Bilingual Education Act of 1968
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was the first federal law relating to bilingual education. It authorized $7.5 million to finance 76 projects serving 27,000 students, and the purpose of funds were to support education programs, train teachers and aides, develop and distribute instructional materials, and encourage parental involvement. It is explicitly compensatory. Children who were unable to speak English were considered to be educationally disadvantaged. Bilingual education was to provide resources to compensate for the “handicap” of not speaking English. Federal aid to bilingual education was seen as a “remedial” program rather than an innovative approach to language instruction.
Since the initial legislation in 1968, there have been six reauthorizations of the Bilingual Education Act (‘74, ’78, ’84, ’88, ’94, and ’01). The 2001 reauthorization was contained within the No Child Left Behind Act.
English-Only Movement
In the 1980s, a movement arose to seek the establishment of English as the official language of the United States. The goals of English-only movement were: adoption of a constitutional amendment to make English the official language, repeal laws mandating multi-lingual ballots and voting materials, restriction on bilingual funding, universal enforcement of the English language and civics requirement for naturalization
Federal Law and Judicial Decisions
There were many federal laws and judicial decisions related to bilingual education. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (1964) set a minimum standard for the education of any student by prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in the operation of a federally assisted program. It has been interpreted to prohibit the denial of equal access to education because of an English learner’s limited proficiency in English. Lau v. Nichols (1974) made illegal those educational practices that excluded children from effective education on the basis of language. Title VII (Bilingual Education Act, 1974) defined bilingual education as “instruction given in, and study of, English, and to the extent necessary to allow a child to progress effectively through the educational system, the native language.” Castaneda v. Pickard (1981) outlined three criteria for EL programs: it must be based on sound educational theory, implemented effectively, evaluated as effective. Plyler v. Doe (1982) cannot deny school enrollment to children of illegal immigrants. Title III of the most recent reauthorization of ESEA, the NCLB Act of 2001 heavily emphasizes English-language proficiency not only for students, but also for teachers, who must be certified in written and oral English. In 1998, California passed Prop 227 which was a measure rejecting bilingual education.
Educational Issues
There are many educational issues involving bilingual education. Ethnic minorities score lower on achievement tests compared to Whites, for example, ethnic minorities score 48-97 points lower than Whites on verbal subtests. Dropout rates are shockingly high. Only 52% of the students in America’s 50 largest cities complete HS with a diploma, and in four districts: Baltimore, Cleveland, Detroit, Indianapolis, they had less than 32%. Limited English proficient students drop out at a rate 5 times as high (51%) as their English-speaking peers, their primary reason for dropping out is lack of knowledge in the English language.
Placements
Educators have responded to these educational issues by developing special programs and procedures and by placing students in special classes: Special education referrals and placements where referral for EL students were disproportionately high, Retention/Promotion policies where students fall behind almost immediately on entering school, Tracking which is a major contributor to continuing gaps in achievement, Segregation which has disastrous effects on minority students, Compensatory education which has been identified with remediation of linguistic deficiencies, Submersion in English where the parents of these students have been less involved in helping with homework, and Inclusion of EL students in mainstream classrooms which is currently the trend.
Bilingual Education Program Models
Bilingual education has different kinds of program models. One is submersion where no provisions are made for the language and academic needs of EL students and denies students their rights under the law. A second model is teaching of English Language Development (ELD) which is further divided into Pull-out ELD where students leave their classroom for instruction with ELD teacher, ELD class period which is a separate ELD class, Content Based ELD where it is a separate ELD class, but content is based on grade-level academic objectives and Sheltered Instruction (SDAIE) where lessons have content, language, and learning strategy objectives. A third model is Transitional or Early Exit Bilingual Education where the goal: to mainstream students into English-only classrooms. In Maintenance or Developmental Bilingual Education, students are encouraged to be proficient in English and their native language. In Immersion Bilingual Education, the program provides academic and language instruction in 2 languages, ideally from K through 12. In Newcomer Centers, the program helps students acquire enough English to move into regular language support programs.
Instructional Strategies for Bilingual Education
Not only are there are different program models for bilingual education, but there also different instructional strategies. In Language Management, educators can separate the two languages by time, personnel, subject, and manner of delivery. In Primary-Language Use strategy, the primary language is used as the language of instruction in teaching students academic material. In Code Switching, students have the choice to use which language they’re most comfortable with, and in Classroom Organization students are engaged in a nurturing environment that honors and respects their language and culture.
How does this pertain to us as School Psychologists?
EL students have been disproportionately referred and placed in Special Education due to low level of acculturation, inadequate assessment, language problems, poor school progress, academic/cognitive difficulties, and special learning problems. It is our job to adequately assess the student to make sure the difficulties are do to an academic/cognitive issue and not just a language barrier by using unbiased assessments, for example, using assessments that require little knowledge of English language
Discussion
Do you agree that English should be the official language of the United States?
With so many languages in the US, do you think bilingual education is possible?
CLAD Chapters:
2-3-
7- Kelly
8- Mona
CLAD Chapter Eight: Cultural Diversity
Abstract
The United States has often used the metaphor of a “melting pot” to describe its diverse population. However, those groups who have resisted assimilation pressures have come up with a more modern metaphor of a “salad bowl”, implying a mix in which the individual ingredients retain their flavor and texture. However, groups that are least similar to the original European-American immigrants have suffered discrimination, exploitation, and genocide. Economic cycles in the United States have affected immigration policies, liberalizing the policies when workers were needed and restricting immigration when jobs were scarce. Causes for immigration include economic, political, and religious factors, as well as family unification. Immigrants have brought with them cultural, political, religious, and economic values, along with multiple tongues and various skills. Immigrants contribute material aspects of their culture (such as crafts, foods, and technology), as well as nonmaterial aspects (such as family values, spiritual beliefs, and medical practices). Much of the history of the United States consists of the migration of groups from one part of the country to another, due to crowding or the promise of greater economic freedom. The most mobile population between 1995 and 2000 was Hispanics and the least mobile population between 1995 and 2000 was non-Hispanic Whites.
Minorities’ labor, art, and votes have long been used and abused without adequate compensation. For example, Native Americans brought food to the starving colonists and, in return, had their land taken away. This exploitation continues to this day with the inadequately paid, undereducated underclass of the United States, living without health benefits or adequate housing, whether white, brown, or black. Poverty is associated with a number of difficulties, such as underemployment, homelessness, educational deprivation, single parent homes, and other types of instability. However, some minorities continue in poverty due to racism and discrimination. Issues related to poverty include insufficient income, jobs with limited opportunity, lack of health insurance, inadequate education, and poor nutrition.
Minority students typically live in racially isolated neighborhoods and are more likely to attend segregated schools. A student who is Black, Latino, or Native American remains much less likely to succeed in school, and a major factor is a disparity of resources in inner-city schools. The educational system of the United States has been fundamentally weak in serving the fastest growing school-age population. School psychologists need to be aware of how multiple factors and student diversity influence the provision of crisis intervention services. They need to be able to connect with, respond to, and interact effectively with their pupils. As the immigrant population in the United States increases, so does the need for schools to support immigrant students and their families. By providing support to immigrant families and students in need, schools ensure that immigrant students not only develop a sense of belonging but also learn in an environment that fosters success and achievement.
9- Lana
Chapter 9: Intercultural Educators
Culture is defined in many ways. Diaz-Rico and Weed summarized culture as “the explicit and implicit patterns for living, the dynamic system of commonly agreed-upon symbols and meanings, knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, behaviors, traditions, and/or habits that are shared and make up the total way of life of a people, as negotiated by individuals in the process of constructing a personal identity.” Culture involves observable behaviors as well intangibles such as beliefs, values, rhythms, rules, and roles. Cultures cannot be taught merely by examining external features such as art and artifacts. Instead, to truly understand the culture the teacher must examine the living patterns and values of the culture that an art piece or artifact represents.
People’s attitudes toward schooling are influence by their culture. Examples of some of the attitudes include the individual’s desired occupation or career, the importance that parents place on education, and the value placed on an investment of an education. Culture also governs the way people learn and it may also influences their learning styles. The students’ culture is the foundation for their learning. When the home culture and the school culture come into contact, they affect each other. Several things can happen; the dominant culture takes over and causes the individuals to assimilate into this new culture, the individuals adapt or acculturate effectively to the mainstream culture, both cultures adapt or accommodate to each other, or both cultures coexist in a pluralism or biculturalism environment. Students go through a process of euphoria, culture shock, and adaptation when they experience a second culture. This process can take several years and long term adjustment can take several forms. It is important for intercultural teachers to understand the relationship between the students’ home culture and school culture and stages of adjustment for these students. By doing so they are able to accept and promote cultural content in the classroom as a vital component of the instructional process and are able to help the students to achieve within the cultural context of the school.
Schools have unique opportunities to prevent and control interethnic conflicts through their policies, curricula, and antiracism programs. Schools that promote an atmosphere of multiculturalism convey the message that all cultures are of value. They do this by displaying explicit welcome signs in many languages, attempting to involve parents by a deliberate curriculum of inclusion, by using affirmative action to promote hiring of a diverse faculty, and by developing programs that promote interactions between students of diverse backgrounds. When interethnic conflicts arise, culturally receptive schools take immediate proactive steps to resolve the conflicts. One such program that is effective in managing conflict for elementary students uses negotiation and mediation procedures that focus on safely expressing feelings, taking the perspective of the other, and providing the rationale for diverse points of view (Johnson and Johnson 1979, 1994, 1995). Another example of a conflict resolution model developed by the Conflict Resolution Network is the Twelve Skill Approach to Interethnic Conflict, which promotes a win-win approach using negotiation and mediation to resolve interethnic conflicts.
School psychologists need to be aware of the challenges faced by individuals from non-dominant cultures as they strive to succeed in school. They need to be aware of how class and racial privileges create a barrier for success for individuals from non-dominant culture. By engaging in a self-reflection process and outreach to their community, they become more knowledgeable about another culture and are more equipped to participate in school reforms.
2-10
1- Natalie
2- Lauryn
3- Debbi
2-17
10- Venus
11- Alex
2-24
12- Denise:
3-3
4- Sarah
5- Lara
6- Marla -
3-10
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